Marine benthic invertebrates

Writing team: Lis L. Jørgensen (coordinating author), Lara Atkinson, Evangelia Chatzinikolaou, Anya Dunham, Elva Escobar, Chris Frid, Daniela Yepes Gaurisas, Bruce C. Glavovic, Hiroko Muraki Gottlieb, Huw J. Griffiths, Laurent Guérin, Pat Hutchings, Izwandy Idris, Sebastian Herrera Kasic, Mehdi Bolouki Kourandeh, Hongjun Li, Elizabeth Logerwell, Marcel Miranda, Amarachi Onyena, André Pardal, Christina Pavloudi, Rachel Przeslawski, Jayachandran Paravanparambil Rajakumar, Lennert Schepers, Mehdi Ghodrati Shojaei (lead member), Kerry Sink, Paris Stefanoudis, Leen Vandepitte, Gordon James Watson and Denis Zakharov.

Key points

• Seafloor hotspots and 7,252 new benthic invertebrates have been described since the publication of the second World Ocean Assessment, and there has been a five-fold increase in critically endangered species and a doubling of endangered species.
• Marine benthic invertebrates are vital for ocean health but are increasingly impacted by human activities.
• There is often limited understanding of the implications of these impacts and inadequate provisions to contain them.
• Research and cooperation are still unbalanced among regions.
• Marine invertebrates are still poorly documented, particularly in the deep ocean and in the territorial waters of developing States and island States, which potentially host a high number of endemic taxa.
• Consistent funding for biodiversity monitoring is needed to prevent knowledge gaps from widening.
• Meaningful and ethical use of Indigenous knowledge and representation of early career professionals are required.
• Seabed mining raises concerns about negative impacts, calling for coordination and cooperation between the Conference of the Parties to the Agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction and the International Seabed Authority (ISA).

1. Introduction

Since the public of the second World Ocean Assessment, benthic species and habitats have been affected by human activities worldwide (figure I).

Figure I

Benthic invertebrates are vital for ocean health and human well-being but are threatened by climate change, human activities (including bottom trawling) and pollution (including microplastics and contaminants).

2. Environmental change since the second World Ocean Assessment

Changes in overall status

Biodiversity

The World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS), as at 29 August 2024, held 246,517 valid marine species names, including 151,902 marine benthic invertebrates. Of all the new marine species discovered each year, about 60% are benthic invertebrates. From 2019 to 2023, of the 10,742 new marine species described, 7,252 (67.5%) were benthic invertebrates (figure II).

Figure II Global marine species discovery rate (accepted species only) since 1758

Source: Prepared by the writing team.

Of the 32 marine phyla with invertebrate species, 26 include benthic species (figure III). Among these, 21,271 species (14%) live at depths greater than 500 m.

Figure III Global number of marine benthic invertebrate species, by group (phylum), showing total species numbers

Table 1 Number of marine benthic invertebrate species per category of the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species

Source: Prepared by the writing team.

^a This number category includes four "conservation-dependent" species.

According to WoRMS, the Ocean Biodiversity Information System, and the Marine Regions website (accessed Oct 2024), marine benthic invertebrates are found in all International Hydrographic Organization areas. However, significant regional variations reflect current knowledge gaps (figure IV).

Figure IV Total number of recorded marine invertebrate benthic species for all International Hydrographic Organization sea areas for <200 m, 200-1000 m and >1000 m depth.

Source: Prepared by the writing team.

Note: The boundaries of the International Hydrographic Organization sea areas follow Claus and others, 2014, and International Hydrographic Organization sea areas, version 3 Ref 67, available online at http://www.marineregions.org/. https://doi.org/10.14284/323). Species occurrences: Ocean Biodiversity Information System (OBIS), 2024. Species group information: WoRMS. Bathymetry data: European Marine Observation and Data Network (EMODnet), 2016; General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO), 2015; and Provoost and Bosch, 2018.

Impacts of change on and interaction with other components of the marine system

Marine benthic ecosystems are crucial for ocean health and human well-being but are under growing pressure from human activities (Sweetman and others, 2017; Halpern and others, 2019; Gissi and others, 2021; Mamede 2024) (table 2 and regional information).

Unprecedented environmental changes are causing range shifts, novel species assemblages and extirpations. Research and scientific guidance are essential for understanding ocean changes and their effects on benthic resources, ecosystem services and socioeconomic impacts, and for developing effective mitigation strategies Ref 90 Ref 197 Ref 41.

Table 2 Anthropogenic stressors and activities affecting benthic marine invertebrates and ecosystems worldwide

Source: Prepared by the writing team.

Contaminants and microplastics accumulate in the seabed, harming benthic invertebrates and ocean ecosystems Ref 146 Ref 133. Widespread damage to benthic habitats and biodiversity affects marine ecosystem services in various ways across regions, highlighting the need for targeted seabed management Ref 228 Ref 138 Ref 142.

Governance of the seabed within and beyond national jurisdiction

Deep seabed mining management has drawn significant attention from various stakeholders, including governments, research institutions, intergovernmental organizations, non-governmental organizations and the private sector. Concerns are focused on its harm to benthic invertebrates Ref 10 Ref 51 Ref 188 Ref 208 Ref 212 and inadequate management of seabed mining impacts Ref 174. There have been calls by some for a moratorium, a precautionary pause or a ban (Deep Sea Conservation Coalition, 2024; World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 2024).

For the seabed outside of the national jurisdiction, the Agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction, once it comes into force, will provide management measures, including area-based management tools, such as marine protected areas (MPAs) and environmental impact assessments Ref 111 that could complement the existing measures for management of the seabed. To be effective, such management measures will require strong coordination and cooperation between the Conference of the Parties to the Agreement and ISA and regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) to ensure the conservation and sustainable use of areas beyond national jurisdiction (Muraki Gottlieb and others, 2025). Furthermore, capacity-building and the transfer of marine technology in the Agreement that encompasses all of the substantive elements, including the fair and equitable sharing of benefits of marine genetic resources of areas beyond national jurisdiction, will help to reduce gaps in scientific knowledge and to support further management measures, which is essential, especially for developing countries. For areas within national jurisdiction, select regional seabed management aspects are summarized in table 3.

Table 3 Select examples of regional management of the seabed since 2019

Source: Prepared by the writing team.

Region-specific changes

Arctic Ocean

The Arctic is an ecologically and culturally important marine region that remains largely untouched but is facing rapid environmental changes. Recent studies have established quantitative baselines of marine benthic biodiversity in previously underresearched areas Ref 176 Ref 231 Ref 244 Ref 55 Ref 78 Ref 20 Ref 106 Ref 118 Ref 124 Ref 130 Ref 32 Ref 148 Ref 183 Ref 221. The Arctic faces major global and local threats such as warming, acidification, fishing, mineral extraction, port development and increased vessel traffic (figure V and citations therein). Microplastics are also a growing concern Ref 65. Recent ecological changes include infaunal and epibenthic invertebrate population declines and species moving northward Ref 139 Ref 106 Ref 209 Ref 75 Ref 83. The status of commercially important crab and shrimp stocks varies from variable to healthy Ref 157 Ref 86. As the potential for commercial fishery expansion, new shipping routes and oil and gas extraction increases in the region, further mapping and monitoring efforts are necessary.

Figure V Arctic Ocean: global and local stressors, associated pressures, and recently documented consequences for marine benthic invertebrates

North Atlantic Ocean, Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and North Sea

Except for oceanic ridges and hydrothermal vents, benthic habitats across subregions remain in poor status Ref 19 with benthic diversity moderate or low for most subregions and none showing increases Ref 166. Global warming affects habitats at all depths (Mediterranean Experts on Climate and Environmental Change (MedECC), 2020; see also figure VI). Fishing affects 48% of OSPAR-assessed areas via species extraction and seabed disturbance. Agriculture, aquaculture and tourism all drive nutrient enrichment, while green technologies increase contaminant inputs Ref 166. Pressures disrupt ecosystem functions, exacerbate the effects of other stressors such as epizootic events Ref 128 and compromise ecosystem services Ref 100. Benthic biodiversity improvements can benefit coastal communities through processes such as nutrient bioremediation Ref 230.

Figure VI North Atlantic Ocean, Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and North Sea: global and local stressors, associated pressures and recently documented consequences for marine benthic invertebrates

South Atlantic Ocean and wider Caribbean

Despite limited and fragmented data, progress has been made. Research now focuses on deep environments, habitat mapping, identification of foundational species, and ecology Ref 211 Ref 62. Changes have been noted in shallow habitats, including coral bleaching and mortality, shifts in benthic communities and commercially valuable invertebrate stocks, and the spread of non-indigenous species (NIS) (see figure VII and studies cited therein). Climate-driven physical changes increasingly affect benthic ecosystems. Local threats include fishing, coastal development, shipping, mining, aquaculture causing overexploitation, illegal fishing, pollution, bioinvasions and habitat damage (figure VIII). Shifts in fishery stocks also have significant socioeconomic impacts Ref 225 Ref 61. Considering the rapid changes under way, along with the potential expansion of the petroleum industry Ref 193, seabed mining Ref 26 Ref 168, and the installation of offshore wind farms Ref 88, there is a need to expand the monitoring of benthic communities in this region, especially in deep habitats.

Figure VII South Atlantic Ocean and Wider Caribbean: global and local stressors, associated pressures and recently documented consequences on marine benthic invertebratesArrows width indicates relative importance of stressors at global and local scales

Note: Arrow width indicates relative importance of stressors at global and local scales.

Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Persian Gulf

Multiple global and local stressors impact marine invertebrates in this region (figure VIII). Thermal stress causes coral bleaching and declines in abundance, even at depth Ref 50. Overfishing and destructive fishing practices degrade benthic habitats and threaten food security Ref 162. Marine debris leads to marine life entanglement Ref 171, while oil spills and invasive species disrupt native biodiversity Ref 121. Coastal development and untreated wastewater discharge alter benthic communities Ref 201 with prospective offshore mining likely to worsen impacts Ref 66. Long-term studies on these pressures are limited Ref 201, but new biodiversity surveys (such as Amjad and others, 2024) and ecological research provide insights into ecosystem resilience Ref 47 Ref 207. Functional ecology can help in the assessment of biodiversity roles and responses to environmental changes, while biogeography and metacommunity ecology can help to identify large-scale patterns and habitat connections for conservation planning. Experimental research can provide information on how marine invertebrates respond to natural variability, climate change and pollutants. Key ecosystem services at risk include food security through fisheries, coastal protection and tourism (United Nations Environment Programme-National Center for Wildlife (UNEP-NCW), Nairobi Convention and Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association (WIOMSA), 2024).

Figure VIII Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Persian Gulf: global and local stressors, associated pressures and recently documented consequences for marine benthic invertebrates

North Pacific Ocean

Ocean temperatures have increased over the long term Ref 95 Ref 31 Ref 24 Ref 6 Ref 39 Ref 97, leading to widespread intertidal die-offs from heatwaves and hypoxia Ref 31 Ref 105, species turnover, range shifts and the spread of invasive species Ref 29 Ref 227 Ref 108 Ref 239 Ref 53. The Puget Trough and the Piip volcano are hotspots of seafloor biodiversity in the North Pacific Ref 231 Ref 194 (figure IX).

Trawl fisheries are a major fishery type in the region Ref 152. Many invertebrate stocks, including crabs, oysters, geoduck, Pacific oysters and northern abalone,-have declined across the North Pacific, with severe losses species such as the Bering Sea snow crab Ref 214. Aquaculture faces challenges from ocean acidification, hypoxia, temperature anomalies and invasive species Ref 6 Ref 39 Ref 186. In 2021, a sea star outbreak in the Jiaozhou Bay in China caused major damage to shellfish farming and fisheries.

Figure IX North Pacific Ocean: global and local stressors, associated pressures and recently documented consequences for marine benthic invertebrates

South Pacific Ocean

Deep-sea biodiversity of the South Pacific has recently expanded through taxonomic discoveries on the south-eastern Australian slope and abyss Ref 93 Ref 163 by means of, inter alia, species inventories Ref 131, the discovery of new species Ref 69 Ref 237 Ref 22 Ref 94 Ref 74 Ref 247 and taxonomic revisions Ref 246. Underwater imagery and samples from the Coral Sea have provided new data on black corals Ref 107, carnivorous sponges Ref 59 and mesophotic reefs Ref 109.

Warming waters have caused range shifts of benthic invertebrates across the region Ref 42 Ref 76, leading to ecosystem changes, especially in photic zones, such as kelp gardens shifting to urchin barrens Ref 137 Ref 16.

Warming waters and marine heatwaves (figure X) have reduced key habitat for marine invertebrates, such as giant kelp forests Ref 215 and coral reefs Ref 104, including through repeated bleaching events around Lord Howe Island, the world's southernmost coral reef Ref 153. In Australia, extreme flooding, bushfires and heatwaves have been associated with freshwater plumes, sedimentation, turbidity and high temperatures, all of which have been shown to negatively impact certain benthic invertebrates Ref 135 Ref 80 Ref 17.

Figure X South Pacific: global and local stressors, associated pressures and recently documented consequences for marine benthic invertebrates

Southern Ocean

The ecosystems of Antarctica host a diverse, highly endemic community shaped by isolation and freezing temperatures. Projected changes (figure XI) will likely reach tipping points in physiological limits, primary productivity, ecosystem function and competition by the end of this century Ref 91. These changes will affect Antarctic benthic ecosystem health, stability and uniqueness as endemic cold-water species decline and cosmopolitan species move south. Benthic changes remain poorly understood, with research focused mostly on a few shallow water taxa, requiring advanced technologies to address geographic, depth, seasonal and taxonomic gaps Ref 91.

Cold-adapted species face threats from local and global drivers, including warming, acidification and changes to the cryosphere. The impacts vary by location, depth and community type, with the most significant changes observed in the shallows of the west Antarctic Peninsula Ref 91. These include the emergence of newly exposed coastline (leading to new habitats), reduced sea ice and increased iceberg scouring and turbidity, leading to higher mortality, lower diversity and reduced primary production, carbon storage and spatial competition Ref 91.

Figure XI Southern Ocean: global and local stressors, associated pressures and recently documented consequences for marine benthic invertebrates

3. Implications for achieving the targets of the Sustainable Development Goals of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

The preservation and sustainable management of marine ecosystems, a key focus of the Sustainable Development Goals, is closely tied to benthic fauna, which are crucial for ecosystem health and resilience. This connection is particularly evident in Goal 14, which is aimed at conserving and sustainably using the oceans, seas and marine resources. The conservation of benthic fauna also supports Goal 13 (climate action) and Goal 15 (life on land), as healthy marine ecosystems help to regulate the climate and maintain global ecological balance.

The negative biodiversity and ecosystem trends outlined in the present subchapter hinder progress towards the achievement of relevant Goals. Effective implementation of the Agreement on Marine Biological Diversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction to complement existing management measures and strengthened ocean management at the regional and national levels are crucial for advancing Goal 14. Increasing conservation-focused ocean management measures at the regional and national levels can support the achievement of Goal 14, contributing to addressing climate change (Goal 13) and reducing biodiversity loss (Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework).

4. Key remaining knowledge and capacity gaps

(a) Marine invertebrates are underdocumented in the deep ocean, developing States and island States, and there are few experts on certain taxa;

(b) Increased digitization and genomic research are needed to identify cryptic species, integrate species information and improve accessibility;

(c) Documenting larval and juvenile settlement in deeper ecosystems remains challenging;

(d) Research on the biological pump and human impacts is needed;

(e) Local research and cooperation need improvement:

(i) To activate skills and resources to use citizen and community science programmes to fill knowledge gaps;

(ii) To develop effective succession planning and career development opportunities for early and mid-career marine scientists;

(iii) To meaningfully and ethically consider Indigenous Peoples and First Nations and local knowledge;

(iv) To secure consistent funding for long-term biodiversity monitoring;

(f) The recording of benthic invertebrates during assessments of commercial fisheries using bottom trawl should be used as a supplement to small-scale grab or underwater video methods;

(g) Ocean digital twins should be developed that compile available data and allow the development of future scenarios and predictions;

(h) Imaging techniques, possibly combined with artificial intelligence, can be used to monitor infrequently assessed, remote and inaccessible benthic ecosystems;

(i) Improved seabed management in relation to increasing human activities is needed;

(j) Networking across regions and disciplines is vital for understanding marine biodiversity, gathering key information, monitoring changes and conducting research on biodiversity patterns and processes, improving the societal relevance of research Ref 219.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank Pieter Provoost and Ward Appeltans (Ocean Biodiversity Information System of the International Oceanographic Data and Information Exchange); Wim Decock (World Register of Marine Species of the Flanders Marine Institute); and Ken Fong, Karen Dunmall and John O'Brien (Department of Fisheries and Oceans of Canada).

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