Equity, justice and human rights in the ocean

Writing team: Nathan J. Bennett (coordinating author), Edward H. Allison, Jessica Blythe, Roberto de Pinho (lead member) Bolanle Erinosho, Elena Finkbeiner, Lora E. Fleming, Stefan Gelcich, Quentin Hanich, Caroline Ferguson Irlanda, Alana Malinde S.N. Lancaster, Rocio Lopez de la Lama, Richard A. Nyiawung, Jörn Schmidt (lead member) Joeri Scholtens, Samiya Ahmed Selim, Mia Strand, Sebastian Villasante and Colette C.C. Wabnitz.

Key points

• Equity, justice and human rights issues are widespread in the ocean.
• Ocean benefits are inequitably distributed across groups, countries and regions of the world, notably in fisheries, the ocean economy and access to marine ecosystem services.
• Environmental justice concerns are pervasive, as the impacts of marine pollution and plastics, climate change, fishery declines and environmental degradation are disproportionately affecting coastal populations and are inequitably distributed globally.
• Human rights violations are prevalent in the ocean, occurring in fisheries, in the ocean economy, in marine conservation and in relation to a healthy environment and climate change.
• The participation of all affected parties, which is foundational to the achievement of equity, justice and human rights, is needed in ocean governance at all scales, from local to global.
• Existing ocean governance processes lack adequate participation and inclusivity.
• Social equity, justice and human rights are often inadequately integrated into ocean decision- making processes, policies and practices.
• Social equity, justice and human rights are useful frameworks to guide best practices and governance for a sustainable and inclusive ocean.
• States have a key role to play in ensuring that equity, environmental justice and human rights are central to future ocean governance.

1. Introduction

Humanity has always been deeply connected to, and dependent on, the ocean. This is especially true for coastal populations, island nations and countries adjacent to the ocean. Nevertheless, throughout history, some groups within society and some nations and States have had greater access to, and captured more benefits from, the ocean. Inequities in distribution of the ocean's benefits persist today and are amplified by a growing global demand for ocean resources Ref 156 and the capture of large shares of the ocean economy by a few corporations and countries Ref 219 Ref 314. For instance, global fisheries are dominated by higher-income countries Ref 190 Ref 283. Meanwhile, Indigenous Peoples and small-scale fishers often lack adequate access and harvests to earn a livelihood and support adequate nutrition security, despite industrial fleets fishing nearby (Amnesty International, 2023; Andreoli and others, 2023; Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF), 2022).

Simultaneously, climate change, pollution and biodiversity declines are placing increased pressure on the ocean environment, with disproportionate impacts on resource-dependent coastal populations and less wealthy nation States (Bindoff and others, 2019; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2021, 2019). Toxic pollution from oil development and spills is affecting the environment, fisheries and food security for countless coastal communities worldwide Ref 9 Ref 120 Ref 216. Human rights violations are also pervasive in global fisheries Ref 114 Ref 185 Ref 198 Ref 275 Ref 278, in the ocean economy Ref 34 Ref 97 Ref 164 Ref 195 and in relation to a healthy ocean environment Ref 35.

The above list of issues is emblematic of the widespread and growing inequities, injustices and human rights issues occurring across the global ocean. Meanwhile, efforts have been made to ensure that ocean governance frameworks keep pace with the accelerating environmental changes and declines through an ever-increasing and complex set of institutions, regulations and management efforts Ref 52 Ref 224. However, local people and communities have often been inadequately included in ocean governance and decision-making processes, and there has been insufficient attention to equity, justice and human rights in the formulation and implementation of marine policies, management and conservation efforts Ref 26 Ref 68 Ref 219.

The present chapter contains a broad overview of the following interconnected substantive and procedural issues: (a) equity in the distribution of the ocean's benefits; (b) environmental justice and the ocean; (c) human rights and the ocean; and (d) participation in ocean governance (see box below for definitions). It concludes with best practices for bringing equity, justice and human rights into the centre of ocean governance.

2. Equity in the distribution of the ocean's benefits

Society receives a myriad of benefits from the ocean, including food, oxygen, transportation, health, inspiration, recreation, heritage, employment and climate regulation Ref 127 Ref 151 Ref 158 Ref 168 Ref 315 Ref 321. However, marine resources and ecosystem services do not flow to, or benefit, all people equitably Ref 41 Ref 42 Ref 87 Ref 137.

Distributional equity refers to the level of fairness in access to, and benefits from, resources and opportunities derived from coastal and marine environments. Examples of ocean inequities include unequal distribution of fish allocations and catches among countries (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2024; Hicks and others, 2022); limited and insecure tenure and access rights for small-scale fishers, women and minorities Ref 92 Ref 90 Ref 153 Ref 231; limited engagement of low- and middle-income countries in high-seas activities and the consolidation of an ocean economy involving relatively few transnational corporations Ref 104 Ref 218 Ref 314.

Some authors argue that inequity is a systemic feature of the ocean economy, embedded in existing political and economic systems that have been shaped by historical legacies of colonialism and exploitation Ref 63 Ref 64 Ref 227. Current arrangements often favour wealthy and powerful States, corporations and individuals, resulting in benefits accumulated by a few, in harms from development often borne by coastal communities and the most vulnerable, and in considerable disparities in wealth, health, food security and economic opportunities Ref 219 Ref 314.

The present part of the chapter serves to further explore how the benefits of the ocean are inequitably distributed across groups, countries and regions of the world, with a focus on three examples for which there is evidence of such inequitable distribution: ecosystem services, fisheries and the ocean economy.

Equity in ecosystem services

Ecosystem services refer to the benefits provided by nature, such as air, water and food, to people Ref 193. The benefits of marine ecosystem services, such as fishery production and coastal protection, are often unequally distributed, which has negative impacts on the well-being of coastal communities and groups that are marginalized Ref 42 Ref 81. Around the world, local people can find themselves excluded from beaches that they use for recreational, cultural or livelihood purposes Ref 126 Ref 192 Ref 194. Native Hawaiians, for example, experience barriers to gaining access to the diverse cultural values provided by beaches as a result of tourism and infrastructure development Ref 126.

Many processes and factors, such as insufficient recognition and participation of all user groups in decision-making, insecure tenure rights and a lack of access to resources, contribute to the uneven distribution of coastal ecosystem services and the associated benefits. Tenure and access, for example, are key mechanisms that support benefits from marine and coastal ecosystem services Ref 100 Ref 169. The erosion of marine tenure undermines local communities' right to have access to their traditional fishing grounds, thereby depriving them of benefits, while exacerbating disparities in wealth and food security Ref 282. Without secure access, communities lack the power to manage and protect their resources Ref 26. Furthermore, disconnection from ancestral fishing practices erodes cultural identity and social cohesion Ref 225.

Equity in fisheries

Global fisheries provide society with multiple social and economic benefits. Fisheries supply 3.2 billion people with a significant portion (>20%) of their protein intake and provide more than 60 million full- time or part-time jobs Ref 89 Ref 279.

However, the benefits of fisheries are inequitably distributed among countries. At a global scale, the top eight capture fishery producers (China, Indonesia, India, Peru, Russian Federation, United States of America, Viet Nam and Japan) account for more than 51% of the total catch Ref 89. Wealthy countries are responsible for 97% of industrial fishing on the high seas and for 78% within the exclusive economic zones (EEZs) of lower income countries Ref 190. Heavily subsidized distant water fishing fleets can deplete stocks that lower-income countries depend on for viable fisheries livelihoods and food security, thus exacerbating existing inequalities Ref 283. Meanwhile, fisheries access agreements often lead to limited economic benefits for host countries Ref 24 Ref 181. The industrial fishing aspirations of developing States can be further disadvantaged in regional and international negotiations owing to international interests in fisheries conservation and catch limits Ref 10.

The benefits of fisheries are also inequitably distributed among groups within countries. Small-scale fisheries constitute 90% of the employment in fisheries globally and contribute 40% of the catch Ref 20 Ref 90, thereby providing food security and livelihoods to local communities. However, despite their contribution, small-scale fishers continue to be marginalized in decision-making, and their tenure rights continue to be threatened Ref 149. Small-scale fishers often struggle to gain access to and benefit from fisheries due to regulatory barriers, limited access to capital, a lack of technology and limited access to fishing grounds and reduced allocation of catch Ref 13 Ref 233. Small-scale fisheries also lack direct access to markets, and are often dependent on intermediaries, thereby leading to reduced profit margins, whereas larger companies can sell directly to consumers or international markets Ref 13 Ref 233. At the same time, the environmental degradation associated with subsidized overfishing by industrial fleets disproportionately affects the catches and income potential of small-scale fishers Ref 8 Ref 260.

Equity in the ocean economy

The ocean economy has been growing rapidly and has spurred a rush to claim ocean space and resources (Barbesgaard, 2018; Jouffray and others, 2020; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2016). Although it is claimed that so-called blue economy policies and interventions contribute simultaneously to economic prosperity, environmental integrity and coastal communities Ref 29 Ref 61 Ref 256, evidence suggests that benefits from the ocean economy are highly inequitable. For example, the 10 largest corporations in eight selected ocean economy industries (including oil and gas, tourism, seafood, wind energy and shipping) generated, on average, 45% of the respective total industry revenues Ref 314. The biggest 100 companies accounted for $1.1 trillion in revenues in 2018, representing 60% of the total Ref 314. Control over growing marine biotechnology markets is also highly concentrated, with a single corporation registering 47% and 10 countries registering 98% of all patented marine genetic sequences Ref 41.

Despite the promise of jobs and other economic benefits from the development of the ocean economy, local communities may see few of the promised benefits. Oil and gas extraction often produces huge wealth for foreign corporations and national elites; however the hiring and procurement of goods seldom benefit local communities Ref 1 Ref 208 Ref 220. Similarly, shrimp aquaculture, which is resource- and technology- intensive and requires access to global markets, is seldom locally owned, often provides few jobs for local communities and undermines local fisheries livelihoods Ref 38 Ref 204 Ref 236 Ref 270. Overlooking social equity in blue growth can lead to accelerated coastal and ocean grabbing processes Ref 28 Ref 75, which refer to the "dispossession or appropriation of use, control or access to ocean space or resources from prior resource users, rights holders or inhabitants" Ref 30. Highly concentrated economic ownership in the ocean economy thereby leads to "unjust uneconomic growth," which produces few local economic benefits and numerous negative social externalities for local communities Ref 205.

Furthermore, the unequal distribution of benefits is enabled by the exploitation of workers Ref 53. In 2015, seafarers worked on average 77 hours per week, and investigations uncovered widespread forced labour on fishing vessels Ref 275 Ref 311. Intense market pressure to reduce costs, combined with weak oversight and accountability for marine industries, has created conditions that enable exploitative labour practices Ref 53.

Conclusion

The benefits of the ocean are inequitably distributed across groups, countries and regions of the world due to a number of structural and contextual factors. Structural drivers of ocean inequality include: policies that prioritize access, allocation and benefits for industrial fishing fleets over the livelihoods, needs and aspirations of small-scale fisheries; a lack of recognition and enforcement of marine tenure and access for rights holders, including small-scale fishers, Indigenous Peoples and other traditional coastal communities; economic disparities that allow wealthier countries and corporations to exploit a greater share of marine resources; governance mechanisms and decision-making processes that prioritize the interests of historically industrialized States over the aspirations of developing States; corruption and weak rule of law; and persistent racist and colonial structures that continue to shape ocean policies and practices Ref 37 Ref 64 Ref 104 Ref 214 Ref 219 Ref 268 Ref 282. Inadequate governance and decision-making processes can often exclude persons in marginalized situations and communities, undermining their ability to advocate for access to, benefits from, and sustainable management of their marine resources Ref 26 Ref 44 Ref 68 Ref 274.

Inequity in the distribution of ocean benefits is driven by and reproduces significant economic disparities, leading to persistent imbalances that undermine local economies, jeopardize food security and exacerbate poverty Ref 219. Additional factors, such as climate change, environmental degradation and global flows of pollution and waste, further exacerbate these inequalities by disproportionately affecting those regions and groups that are dependent on marine ecosystems and have fewer resources to adapt Ref 235.

3. Environmental justice and the ocean

According to research on environmental justice, populations such as Black and Afrodescendent communities, Indigenous Peoples, women, children and socioeconomically marginalized groups bear a disproportionate burden from polluting industries and waste disposal Ref 50 Ref 72, climate change and environmental degradation Ref 48 Ref 49 Ref 71 Ref 254 Ref 285. Environmental justice issues can affect populations close to the source or in regions of the world far from where the issue is produced.

The present part of the chapter contains an outline of how environmental justice issues related to marine pollution and plastics, climate change, fishery declines and environmental degradation are disproportionately affecting coastal populations and are inequitably distributed globally.

Environmental justice, marine pollution and plastics

Pollution and plastics increasingly infiltrate and affect the ocean. Various pollutants, including persistent organic pollutants (POPs), trace metals, hydrocarbons, sewage, fertilizers, pesticides, flame retardants and pharmaceuticals, enter the ocean from various point and -nonpoint sources Ref 11 Ref 107. An estimated 4.8 million to 12.7 million tons of plastic waste, ranging from nanoplastics to macroplastics, are discharged into the ocean each year Ref 152 Ref 281.

Marine pollutants and plastics harm marine species, fish and biodiversity Ref 22, as well as the health, food security, livelihoods and well-being of coastal populations (Bowen and others, 2014; Landrigan and others, 2020; United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2021a). For example, toxic substances, such as methylmercury accumulate in seafood, pose risks that can affect the health and food security of fish-dependent communities, especially women and children Ref 78 Ref 237. Oil spills, such as the Exxon Valdez and Deepwater Horizon spills, have caused long-term economic and psychosocial damage Ref 56 Ref 120 Ref 222 Ref 230. In coastal Cameroon, plastic waste now exceeds fish in the catches of small-scale fishers Ref 276.

Some groups (including communities of colour, Indigenous and Afrodescendent groups, women and children) are more exposed and susceptible to the health effects of pollutants Ref 175. For example, African -American communities in Louisiana, United States, face disproportionate pollution from offshore oil and gas production Ref 180 Ref 240. Inuit women in the Arctic are among the most contaminated humans on the planet due to the persistence and bioaccumulation of POPs in aquatic food chains (Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP), 2021; Ghisari and others, 2014; Wielsøe and others, 2017). Furthermore, global flows in the disposal of pollution and waste disproportionately affect lower-income countries Ref 210, which is the case for both shipbreaking and ship disposal Ref 106 Ref 316 and plastics Ref 228 Ref 293.

Environmental justice and climate change

Anthropogenic climate change is causing changing weather patterns, stronger storms, heatwaves, warming waters, shifting currents and nutrient cycling, deoxygenation and acidification, and sea level rise Ref 39 Ref 148. These changes are affecting marine species, including by influencing fish reproduction, growth and distribution Ref 39 Ref 82 Ref 197 Ref 232 Ref 234 and stressing mangrove, seagrass, saltmarsh and coral reef ecosystems Ref 39 Ref 80 Ref 121 Ref 147 Ref 159 Ref 259.

Coastal populations are facing direct and indirect climate impacts. For example, changes in fish and shellfish stocks are threatening jobs, revenues and food security Ref 59 Ref 79 Ref 96 Ref 162 Ref 201 Ref 284, and rising seas and storms are damaging infrastructure and forcing communities to retreat Ref 4 Ref 74 Ref 76 Ref 134 Ref 135 Ref 176 Ref 239 Ref 244 Ref 248. Displacement of Indigenous coastal communities is disruptive to long-held identities, cultures and traditions linked to the ocean Ref 319.

Climate change affects individuals and groups inequitably. Black, Afrodescendent, Indigenous, migrant and low-income populations tend to live in areas more exposed to flooding and storms Ref 4 Ref 125 Ref 131 and often have lower capacity to respond Ref 249. Small-scale fishers and Indigenous Peoples are more susceptible to the impacts of climate-related declines in marine ecosystems, ecosystem services and fisheries on livelihoods, food security and culture Ref 128 Ref 170 Ref 187. Adaptation efforts can further marginalize coastal communities, women, Indigenous and Afrodescendent peoples, and persons belonging to minority groups when their voices and needs are excluded or ignored Ref 51 Ref 74 Ref 264.

Climate change exposure varies by geography. Coastal communities in Arctic and equatorial regions will likely experience the largest increases in temperatures and changes in the composition of fish species Ref 12 Ref 102 Ref 139 Ref 162. Countries in Asia, Africa and South-East Asia and the Pacific islands near the equator will be most exposed to impacts on fisheries livelihoods, food security and nutrition Ref 12 Ref 122 Ref 139 Ref 170 Ref 284. Low-lying, densely populated regions and cities in Africa, Asia and the Pacific are highly susceptible to sea level rise Ref 76 Ref 203 Ref 215. Moreover, lower-income countries, which are the least responsible for fossil fuel and other pollutant emissions, will suffer most from ocean-related climate impacts Ref 39 Ref 165.

Environmental justice and fishery declines

Globally, fish stocks are in decline due to overfishing, destructive fishing, ineffective management, habitat loss and climate change. An estimated 37.7% of wild fish stocks are fished at biologically unsustainable levels, and the trend of overfishing continuesRef 89 Ref 108. Despite increased fishing efforts since the 1990s Ref 25, catch peaked in 1996 and has since declined Ref 226.

The negative impacts of overfishing and fishery declines are unevenly distributed. Indigenous Peoples and small-scale fishers are particularly susceptible to declines in fish and shellfish due to their high reliance on fishing and harvesting for livelihoods and subsistence. Women, whose contributions to fish harvesting, processing and trade are often unrecognized, are particularly affected Ref 123 Ref 132. In the Pacific, for instance, women account for 56% of small-scale catches Ref 133. In Senegal, female traders are severely affected by foreign fishing vessels and the demand of fishmeal factories Ref 245.

Wealthy countries often capture a greater portion of fishery benefits, while driving the declines in fisheries that affect lower-income countries. Distant water fleets from high-income countries make up 78% of industrial fisheries in low-income countries Ref 190, where seafood provides vital micronutrients that are critical to human health Ref 136. These subsidized fleets undermine the catches, livelihoods and food security of small-scale fishing communities Ref 8 Ref 260 Ref 327. Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing in West Africa, largely by foreign fleets, accounts for between 30 and 50% of the catch and is driving important food species towards extinction Ref 73 Ref 317.

Environmental justice and environmental degradation

Marine habitats are being destroyed and ecosystems are being degraded at alarming rates. For example, an estimated 19% of seagrasses, 30% of coral reefs, 35% of mangroves and 50% of salt marshes have been lost or degraded Ref 16 Ref 83 Ref 243. Human activities threaten ecosystems and the essential goods and services they provide (Bindoff and others, 2019; Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), 2024, 2019), including food, medicine, livelihoods, carbon sequestration, storm protection, cultural heritage, health and well-being Ref 17 Ref 42 Ref 62 Ref 67 Ref 70 Ref 150 Ref 325.

However, these losses and their impacts vary across groups and geographies and are not felt equally. Indigenous populations in the Canadian Arctic are directly affected by the changes in the distribution, health and abundance of beluga populations, which are central to their diets and culture Ref 178. Low-income coastal countries are more vulnerable to the effects of climate change on coral reef fisheries and food security Ref 140. Future losses of coastal protection will likely have the biggest impact on Africa and South-East Asia Ref 58.

Conclusion

Environmental justice issues are widespread across the world's oceans Ref 27 Ref 43. The effects of marine pollution and plastics, climate change, fishery declines and environmental degradation are inequitably distributed across social groups and geographies. Groups and countries with strong ties to, and a high reliance on, the ocean are more exposed and vulnerable to the effects of these environmental issues. That situation is compounded for groups that are subject to historical or ongoing social, economic or political marginalization, including various racial groups, Indigenous Peoples, women, younger persons, migrants and groups with lower socioeconomic status Ref 27 Ref 43.

Many environmental justice issues are often localized, stemming from weak environmental laws, poor implementation, or the lack of accountability in ocean economy development or resource harvesting and management. At the same time, global environmental injustices exist in the ocean, as some regions face more pollution, overfishing, environmental degradation and climate impacts Ref 27. These issues persist due to the continuation of global practices that enable high consumption in wealthy countries to drive resource extraction, waste dumping and climate change impacts in less wealthy regions of the world Ref 175 Ref 210.

4. Human rights and the ocean

Under international law, a universal set of human rights that underpin human dignity and security is acknowledged. In the International Bill of Human Rights, which includes the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 Ref 307, it is recognized that all people have a fundamental set of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights Ref 304. The responsibility of society to safeguard the human rights of individuals that belong to groups subject to discrimination (ethnic, religious and minority groups) and vulnerable groups (women, children, older persons and persons with disabilities) is further clarified in subsequent conventions Ref 299.

In the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and Other People Working in Rural Areas, Indigenous Peoples and traditional communities are recognized as having unique rights associated with their status and connection to the environment Ref 287 Ref 298. The General Assembly has recently recognized the human right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment and that clean air, a safe and stable climate, healthy ecosystems and biodiversity, safe and sufficient water, non-toxic environments, and healthy and sustainable food are necessary for the realization of other human rights (e.g. to life, health, food, livelihoods and security) and the rights of specific groups, namely Indigenous Peoples, small-scale fishers, women and children) Ref 295. Countless other international instruments and frameworks, including on human rights Ref 303), on labour (e.g. the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of all Migrant Workers and Members of their Families (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (UN OHCHR), 1990) and the Work in Fishing Convention, 2007 (No. 188) (International Labour Organization (ILO), 2007)) and voluntary guidelines Ref 93 and the Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security Ref 94) are also relevant in the context of oceans, and are too numerous to review comprehensively here.

Human rights are universal; they apply to everyone, everywhere, including in marine and coastal environments Ref 19 Ref 35. However, human rights violations are rife in the ocean. The substantive human rights issues in fisheries, the ocean economy and marine conservation and in relation to a healthy ocean are examined below.

Human rights issues in fisheries

Human rights violations are widespread in fisheries. Evidence of trafficking in persons, forced labour, child labour and alarming working and living conditions on fishing vessels have been uncovered through journalism and research Ref 278 Ref 308. While such violations first emerged in South-East Asia Ref 86 Ref 141 Ref 174, subsequent investigations have uncovered abuses across the globe Ref 173 Ref 186 Ref 198 Ref 275.

Fishers are vulnerable to human rights abuses due to numerous conditions inherent to the sector: isolation, length of time at sea, transnational operations and restricted labour supply Ref 142. Migrant workers are especially vulnerable in some places and situations due to unregulated recruitment, the withholding of identity documents, debt bondage and an absence of the right to organize Ref 186 Ref 198. These issues have been notoriously difficult to address owing to the complexity of fisheries, the vastness of the ocean and the intersection with organized crime Ref 23 Ref 324. Of note, the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission recently adopted the world's first binding minimum standards for crew labour conditions by a regional fisheries management organization (RFMO) Ref 129,thereby setting an important global precedent.

Furthermore, human and labour rights violations occur across the supply chain Ref 114 Ref 199, with a particular impact on women, who make important contributions in the post-harvest sector, including in processing and trading Ref 90. Gender roles and systemic discrimination across different cultural contexts lead to increased risk and vulnerability for women in fisheries Ref 184, including gender-based and sexual violence Ref 179 Ref 182 Ref 202 Ref 326. Despite representing 40% of fish workers globally Ref 90, women are often "invisibilized" Ref 133 and excluded from human rights protection efforts in fisheries Ref 99.

Numerous pervasive human rights issues also affect small-scale fisheries globally Ref 5 Ref 252 Ref 278, including food and livelihood insecurity resulting from overfishing by foreign fleets Ref 3 Ref 85 Ref 91 Ref 99 Ref 257; the erasure of traditional knowledge and cultural practices; and forced eviction from, or disrupted access to, territories, lands and waters Ref 241 Ref 252. These issues emerge in large part due to inadequate recognition of, attention to and protection of small-scale fishers' human, tenure and access rights in fisheries management Ref 65 Ref 97. Women, Afrodescendent populations and Indigenous Peoples involved in small-scale fisheries are often disproportionately subject to exclusionary and punitive practices Ref 112 Ref 153 Ref 188 Ref 247.

Another source of human rights violations in small-scale fisheries is when management measures put in place by States to address overfishing and IUU fishing undermine the rights of small-scale fishers and lead to their criminalization Ref 262.

Human rights issues in the ocean economy

There is growing evidence that various sectors, including the aquaculture industry, across the broader ocean economy have undermined human rights in different ways. According to a sector-wide impact assessment of salmon farming in Chile, the aquaculture industry is infringing on labour rights, the right to a healthy environment and the rights of Indigenous Peoples Ref 109. Simultaneously, aquaculture feed relies in large part on industrial fishing practices and fishmeal factories, which in certain regions, including West Africa, are contributing to overfishing of small pelagic fish stocks and the undermining of local fisheries and the rights to livelihoods and food security Ref 54 Ref 154 Ref 161 Ref 245.

Spatial displacement, dispossession and appropriation are also common features of the ocean economy that undermine the tenure and access rights of coastal communities, small-scale fishers and Indigenous Peoples Ref 28 Ref 65 Ref 200. Ocean and coastal grabbing is prevalent in sectors such as aquaculture, coastal tourism, oil infrastructure development and post-disaster reconstruction Ref 15 Ref 21 Ref 30 Ref 105 Ref 191 Ref 200 Ref 221 Ref 255. The rapid global expansion of shipping and port infrastructures has displaced communities and small-scale fishers from traditional fishing sites, which affects their rights to food and livelihoods, particularly in Africa and Latin America Ref 66 Ref 171.

Violence against local people and ocean defenders - individuals and groups that are organizing and taking action to resist developments that threaten the ocean environment and their human rights - is prevalent in some places where dispossession, displacement, ocean grabbing and conflict result from development pressures, thereby threatening the rights to security of the person and to life Ref 33 Ref 280.

Human rights violations will continue to occur in the rapidly accelerating ocean economy if States and businesses do not take seriously their obligations and responsibilities to respect, protect and fulfil human rights.

Human rights issues related to a healthy ocean

Mounting anthropogenic pressures on the ocean environment also threaten the right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment Ref 35 Ref 238 Ref 295. Human rights to a healthy ocean are being undermined by marine pollution and plastics, the effects of climate change, degradation of habitats and biodiversity and fishery declines Ref 35 Ref 238.

Oil exploration and extraction, for example, produce pollution that affects the rights to livelihoods, food and health of small-scale fishing communities globally Ref 9. In Quintero-Puchuncaví Bay, Chile, communities have endured decades of pollution from a sacrifice zone, where thermoelectric, petrochemical, oil refining, chemical and copper processing plants are concentrated, undermining their ability to live in a non-toxic environment with healthy food and clean air Ref 113 Ref 223 Ref 309. The prevalence of plastics in the ocean and on beaches threatens the right of young people and future generations to be able to experience and live in clean environments Ref 212.

Climate-related changes, including ocean warming, acidification, extreme weather, sea level rise and storm surges, are affecting safe and stable climate conditions, which are foundational to the rights to food, livelihoods, security and life Ref 35 Ref 39 Ref 238. This is particularly true for people who are highly reliant on marine resources, those living in low-lying coastal cities and residents of small island developing States Ref 27.

A growing number of national court cases worldwide have featured arguments related to the right to a healthy environment in order to halt threats to fishing activities Ref 77 Ref 312, to stop the development of a major coal port Ref 207, to stop oil and gas exploration Ref 189 and to mandate restoration Ref 313. Nevertheless, a concerning emerging trend is that ocean defenders who speak up for the protection of the human right to a healthy ocean are being marginalized, silenced, threatened and even murdered for their efforts Ref 34.

Human rights violations in marine conservation

Evidence of concerning practices by Governments and non-governmental organizations in the name of conservation (including substantive and procedural human rights violations and rights violations specific to Indigenous Peoples and women) began to emerge in the early 2000s Ref 2 Ref 46 Ref 46 Ref 57 Ref 269 Ref 277 Ref 320. Prevalent human rights violations in the context of the conservation of terrestrial wildlife and ecosystems are related to the lack of participation in decision- making or free, prior, and informed consent, forced displacement and restrictions on resource access, and impacts on the rights to livelihoods, food and culture, among others Ref 269.

Recently, however, scholars have highlighted the pervasiveness of human and Indigenous rights issues in marine conservation Ref 261. For example, marine protected areas (MPAs) designated in the context of historical injustices associated with apartheid in South Africa, along with a failure to address ongoing inequities, have resulted in the weakening of local governance rights and processes, the loss of tenure rights and access to resources, and the loss of culture and sense of place Ref 265.

Evidence of displacement and dispossession through inappropriate conservation and management measures, referred to as ocean grabbing Ref 30, exists across many different contexts, such as in Guinea-Bissau Ref 69, Malaysia Ref 138 and the United Republic of Tanzania Ref 157.

Although some violations persist, and there is a need for restitution and remedial action in many places, conservation organizations have recognized and taken numerous measures to address past issues related to human rights in marine conservation. Notably, the importance of respecting and protecting human rights, including Indigenous rights, and taking a human rights-based approach to conservation is acknowledged in the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 2022). Global conservation organizations and Governments have made progress by implementing environmental and social safeguards, improving participation and increasing benefit- sharing mechanisms, as well as by advancing support for conservation initiatives led by Indigenous Peoples and local communities Ref 103 Ref 261.

Conclusion

States have an obligation, and businesses have a responsibility, to promote, respect and protect human rights in relation to the ocean, from coastal margins to the high seas Ref 288 Ref 300. Nevertheless, numerous human rights violations persist in fisheries, in the ocean economy and due to threats to a healthy ocean environment. Furthermore, marine conservation and fisheries management approaches often inadequately consider human rights. Despite the growing recognition of human rights issues that occur in marine and coastal environments, many national and international ocean governance frameworks and processes still lack explicit recognition of, and a requirement to address, human rights Ref 35.

5. Participation in ocean governance

Participation in governance is foundational to the realization of equity, justice and human rights in the ocean. The achievement of more equitable distribution of the ocean's benefits and the reduction of environmental injustices, for example, is enabled by the recognition and representation of diverse groups in ocean governance processes Ref 27 Ref 267.

The realization of substantive human rights related to a healthy ocean also requires attention to procedural elements, which include access to information, public participation in decision-making and access to justice Ref 35 Ref 295. Regional agreements, such as the Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters and the Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean (Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), 1998; United Nations, 2018), underscore the importance of participation of all affected parties in environmental matters as a matter of human rights.

Participatory ocean governance requires all rights holders and stakeholders to be recognized, all affected actors and diverse perspectives to be included, and insights from natural science, social science and traditional knowledge to be represented in decision-making Ref 124 Ref 130. Particular attention is needed to ensure that formerly excluded or silenced populations, such as Indigenous Peoples, small-scale fishers and women (Strand and others, 2024; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) and UNESCO Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems (LINKS), 2024), are effectively included in ocean governance, planning and management processes Ref 271. Inclusion must not be tokenistic, but rather influence and shape policies and management Ref 28 Ref 101 Ref 242.

The extent to which ocean governance processes are participatory, at various scales, is examined below.

Participation in national and local ocean governance

Over the past few decades, there have been increasing efforts to make marine conservation, fisheries management and ocean economy planning processes more participatory. In practice, however, ocean governance at national and local scales varies substantially in terms of the level and quality of participation.

Acknowledging and including a diversity of actors, including Indigenous Peoples, local communities, small-scale fishers, women's groups and other local groups, is key to achieving participatory local and national ocean governance processes Ref 253. Nevertheless, in the context of marine conservation, for example, Indigenous and local communities often continue to be excluded from planning and management of MPAs, for example Ref 119 Ref 261.

In South Africa, decision-making processes related to the establishment and management of MPAs have excluded subsistence and small-scale fishers, Indigenous and coastal communities Ref 229 Ref 265 Ref 271. On the other end of the spectrum is Haida Gwaii in Canada, where plans for marine protection, stewardship and governance have been co-developed between the Indigenous Haida Nation and the provincial government of British Columbia, with representation from the Haida governing council Ref 155.

In general, advances in national policies aimed at improving participation and inclusion in fisheries have taken the forms of co-management Ref 60. For instance, in Chile, the progressive institutionalization of co-management has included introducing territorial user rights for fisheries (TURFs) in 1991 Ref 116, creating collective action arenas in 2013 Ref 117 and adopting voluntary conservation areas by artisanal fishers in 2024. In 2011, Belize committed to establishing territorial user rights for fisheries called "managed access areas" throughout its territorial sea (i.e. its EEZ) through two pilot sites at Port Honduras and Glover's Reef marine reserves, which were scaled up to ensure fishing rights for small-scale operators and communities throughout its territorial sea Ref 110. In Peru, a co-management scheme was introduced for the profitable scallop mariculture sector in order to address significant challenges relating to management, corruption, pollution and enforcement of rules Ref 177.

Fisheries co-management processes in different countries have been more or less successful at incorporating the various elements necessary for effective participation, which include policymaking processes that are co-produced and include fishers Ref 18 Ref 263, clear roles and adequate capacity Ref 88, integration of diverse knowledge systems Ref 206, support for local stewardship Ref 26 and agency for managing seascapes Ref 14. Nevertheless, women are often inadequately included in fisheries decision-making processes Ref 172 Ref 183.

Participation in international and regional ocean governance

At the international level, the limited agency of less powerful States and the level of civil society participation in ocean governance processes are concerning. For example, the Agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction was adopted in 2023 under the auspices of the United Nations and addresses issues related to environmental impact assessments, area-based management tools, including MPAs, capacity-building and technology transfer, and marine genetic resources, including benefit-sharing. Despite lengthy negotiations intended to balance various interests and priorities, the Agreement on Marine Biological Diversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction process has been critiqued for offering limited opportunities for the participation of civil society, Indigenous Peoples and other interested non-State actors Ref 195 Ref 273. There have also been significant inequities in terms of participation, representation and influence of States with smaller economies Ref 268.

Most of the world's oceans are now covered by at least one RFMO, and the United Nations Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks institutionalize the duty to cooperate and requires all Parties to apply conservation and management measures established by existing RFMOs. Under the Fish Stocks Agreement, access to straddling fish stocks and tuna fisheries is limited to Parties that at the very least agree to implement the RFMO measures. RFMOs have the potential to increase the participation and agency of less wealthy and powerful States in ocean governance Ref 258. However, it could be argued that RFMOs have not adequately considered the interests of smaller or emerging economies, particularly with regard to the equitable allocation of fishing opportunities and the disproportionate burdens of conservation measures, which often favour historically developed fishing States over developing States Ref 250 Ref 251 Ref 258 or non-State actors, such as Indigenous Peoples and local communities. Nevertheless, there have been positive developments in RFMOs, such as the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission, in which collective bargaining by small island developing States has helped to ensure that their interests are more effectively considered.

Under the Fish Stocks Agreement, there is a need to avoid adverse impacts on, and ensure access to fisheries by, subsistence, small-scale and artisanal fishers, women fish workers and Indigenous Peoples, and Parties must avoid transferring, directly or indirectly, a disproportionate burden of conservation action onto developing States Ref 301. Unfortunately, however, only the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission has adopted any measures to explicitly implement this requirement in practice (Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC), 2013).

Conclusion

A major challenge for the realization of equity, justice and human rights is ensuring effective participation in ocean governance processes. Although progress is being made in local and national ocean governance processes, inclusivity in regional and international ocean governance processes is still limited. In particular, lower- and middle-income States have less power and voice in regional and international ocean governance processes, and the opportunities for civil society organizations and groups to participate and contribute are limited.

In general, certain groups, including Indigenous Peoples and small-scale fishers, continue to be underrepresented in local and international approaches to ocean governance Ref 267. Furthermore, legacies of colonialism and levels of development continue to have an impact on who is involved, what knowledge systems and values are considered, and the overall quality and equity of ocean governance processes Ref 267 Ref 274.

6. Overall conclusion

In the present chapter, equity, justice and human rights issues in the ocean are examined. Benefits from fisheries, ecosystem services and the ocean economy are inequitably distributed among groups, countries and regions of the world. Marine pollution and plastics, climate change, environmental degradation and fishery declines disproportionately affect certain groups and geographies. Human rights violations occur in fisheries, the ocean economy, marine conservation and in relation to a healthy environment.

Behind these omnipresent issues are an ocean economy that prioritizes the economy over human well-being power asymmetries driven by wealth accumulation and colonial histories, increasing privatization and consolidated ownership of the ocean economy, and ocean governance processes that overlook equity, justice and human rights. Although current levels of participation in ocean governance processes remain largely insufficient to lay the necessary foundation for the achievement of equity, justice and human rights, there is significant potential to strengthen future ocean governance.

Best practices

In that context, below are five best practices for how equity, justice and human rights can be placed at the centre of ocean governance and management.

1. Recognize the unique relationships, dependence and rights of diverse peoples in relation to the ocean. Humanity depends on the ocean; however, different groups have unique relationships with it. To lay the groundwork for effective participation and the promotion of equity, justice and human rights in ocean governance, society must formally acknowledge how diverse individuals, groups, communities, countries and nations relate to, rely on and have rights to the ocean, and integrate these considerations into ocean governance. For example, different communities depend on marine ecosystem services to a greater or lesser extent for various aspects of well-being. Coastal Indigenous Peoples and small-scale fishers have deep cultural connections that depend on access and tenure rights, but those rights are often unrecognized or have been eroded. A social science perspective, grounded in traditional and local knowledge, could support the integration of social considerations into ocean governance.

2. Ensure equitable representation and meaningful participation in ocean governance processes at all scales. Participation is foundational to achieving equity, justice and human rights in ocean governance, and is a key pathway to achieving sustainability. However, there are major shortcomings in the level of inclusivity and participation in local, national and international ocean governance. Under international human rights law, the participation of all affected parties in environmental decisions, underpinned by access to information and access to justice, is mandated Ref 291 Ref 296. Explicit recognition and representation of all stakeholders and rights holders is a first step towards more equitable governance processes. Effective participation requires transforming social cultural norms and addressing various procedural elements, including access to information, funding, capacity, facilitation, accountability and conflict resolution, in order to avoid tokenistic participation and ensure that all groups can influence decision-making.

3. Pursue equity in the distribution of benefits from the ocean. Without adequate controls, there is a risk that the ocean economy could exacerbate inequality, thereby undermining the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals related to decent work, poverty reduction, gender equality and food security Ref 219 Ref 297. Addressing inequalities requires ocean governance policies, processes and practices to prioritize human well-being alongside environmental sustainability. Practical policy measures include social impact assessments, benefit-sharing mechanisms, the implementation of tenure and access rights for coastal communities, and gender equality practices. Tackling corruption, impunity and tax evasion and enforcing fair labour practices are also essential. These solutions must consider actions to address systemic inequities in ownership and seek redress for historical disadvantages.

4. Address the drivers, sources and disproportionate impacts of environmental injustices in the ocean. Certain segments of society and regions of the world bear the brunt of marine environmental issues. At the highest level, bold policies and actions are needed to address the root drivers of each of the growing issues that are leading to environmental injustices - marine pollution and plastics, climate change, fishery declines and environmental degradation. Governments must create and enforce environmental policies and management actions to lessen the burden on the oceans by, for example, banning chemical pollutants, curtailing point source and -nonpoint source pollution, reducing plastic production and improving waste management, and addressing overfishing. Corporate actors might also be further incentivized or forced to improve technologies and the sustainability of their practices Ref 40 Ref 217. It could be argued that environmental justice issues in the ocean also persist due to enduring racism, colonialism and a capitalist economy that enables inequitable global flows of resources to wealthy countries and waste to less wealthy countries. These challenging issues must be brought into question.

5. Embed human rights in national and international ocean governance frameworks and management practices. Under international human rights treaties and law, Governments have an obligation, and businesses and other civil society organizations have a responsibility, to promote, respect, protect and fulfil human rights Ref 35 Ref 160 Ref 238 Ref 288. This applies both within territorial seas and in areas beyond national jurisdiction. Despite some progress, human rights agreements and obligations should be more explicitly acknowledged in global ocean governance processes and agreements Ref 35, and national marine policies and management practices (e.g. related to marine conservation, fisheries and the ocean economy) must contain improved recognition and provisions to protect human rights. Businesses engaged in the ocean economy must uphold human rights in their operations and supply chains, and States are obliged to regulate, monitor and prevent human rights abuses by the private sector Ref 288. States and civil society organizations should adopt human rights- based approaches, including requiring economic and social impact assessments and free, prior and informed consent, in fisheries management, marine conservation, and restoration and climate adaptation efforts Ref 213 Ref 261. The tenure and access rights of Indigenous Peoples and small-scale fishers should be acknowledged and respected in ocean governance Ref 93 Ref 298. Ocean defenders must be safeguarded in their right to gather, organize and advocate for the ocean, their territorial rights and human rights. Lastly, all duty bearers - Governments, businesses and civil society organizations that have obligations and responsibilities - must be held to account for not upholding human rights related to the ocean Ref 261.

In summary, this chapter has served to highlight the types and scope of ocean-related distributional inequities, environmental injustices and human rights violations. Future ocean governance requires a fundamental shift to place equity, justice, and human rights at the centre of ocean policy, management and sustainability efforts. States have a responsibility to ensure inclusive and participatory decision-making and management, to promote the equitable distribution of benefits from the ocean, to address environmental injustices and to embed human rights in ocean governance frameworks. Creating robust ocean policy frameworks and implementing concrete and effective management actions regarding these priorities are essential to upholding broader international commitments related to human rights and sustainable development.

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