Fishes

Fishes

Writing team: Ian Butler (coordinating author), Antonio Di Natale, Manuel Hidalgo, Maximilian Hirschfeld, Alba Jurado-Ruzafa, Jin-Hyoung Kim, Fernanda de Oliveira Lana, Enrique Marschoff (lead member), Gladys Okemwa, Sergii Snigirov, Burcu Bilgin Topcu, Salvador Zarco-Perello and Chang-Ik Zhang (co-lead member).

Key points

• The accelerating impacts of climate change continue to affect fish life histories and populations globally.
• Since the publication of the second World Ocean Assessment, 787 new species of fish have been added to the FishBase database, which contains a total of 35,002 species described.
• New or improved research techniques, such as satellite tagging, video cameras, molecular genetic work are helping to advancing understanding of fish diversity, behaviour and biology.

1. Introduction

The present subchapter provides an update on taxonomy, biology, distribution, habitat and conservation status of bony (Osteichthyes) and non-bony (Chondrichthyes and Agnatha) fish. It is focused on the period 2018 to 2023, on what changes have occurred globally and regionally in terms of production and diversity and on new information that has become available since the publication of the second World Ocean Assessment. The present subchapter will also contain a discussion of remaining key knowledge gaps, capacity changes to better understand fish and whether any new gaps have come to light.

Other overlapping or complementary information relevant to fishes, including changes to fish biomass, is provided in the subchapters on large-and small-scale fisheries (subsect. 5A, subchaps. 1A and 1B); recreational fishing (subsect. 5A, chap. 2); climate change (sect. 4, chap. 1); specific fish habitats (sect. 4, chap. 5, various subchaps.); physical conditions and cumulative pressures (sect. 4, chaps. 3 and 6); and the socioeconomic importance of fish and how fish fit into One Health (subsects. 5A and 5B, various chapters).

2. Environmental change since the second World Ocean Assessment

Fish biomass is strongly affected by environmental, anthropogenic, global and regional pressures. Climate change and the resulting impacts on the marine environment (see sect. 4, chaps. 1 and 3) are having a significant effect on fish populations globally, from positive expansion and growth in new areas (e.g. polar and high latitude areas) to significant declines in other areas Ref 66 Ref 8. These pressures also affect fish biology and growth, fish behaviour, the timing of spawning and migration, and natural mortality Ref 66. Many regions are affected by the removal of fish by poorly managed fishing and fisheries (subsect. 5A, chaps. 1A, 1B and 2), including through habitat damage from fishing gear, illegal unreported and unregulated fishing and the arrival or introduction of alien species.

The latest reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) have projected range shifts among marine fish, suggesting latitudinal changes in fish biomass and decreasing biodiversity Ref 17. Most areas in lower latitudes are projected to have decreasing fish biomass into the future due to unfavourably warm ocean temperatures, while high latitude areas are expected to have increased fish biomass as a result of more favourable warm temperatures Ref 8.

Climate change is also increasing spatiotemporal life history mismatches, such as in larval access to food sources Ref 66. Non-climate, anthropogenic factors amplify the impacts of climate change Ref 36.

The Agreement on Marine Biological Diversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction may support habitat protection and management of fishing in high seas areas, which will in turn support fish populations and biodiversity (Wang 2025; Santos and others, 2022).

Continuous research and documentation of the spatial biodiversity and International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) status of fish has advanced in recent years (tables 1 and 2). A total of 787 new species have been described in FishBase (table 1) and 6,062 have been assessed by IUCN (table 2) since 2019.

Table 1 Number of described marine species of fishes in different habitats across taxonomic class, including species identified since 2019

Source: Prepared by the writing team.

Table 2 Number of marine fish species in each International Union for Conservation of Nature category across taxonomic classes, including the number newly assessed since the drafting of the second World Ocean Assessment (2019)

Source: Prepared by the writing team.

3. Region-specific changes

Arctic Ocean

Arctic fish populations are experiencing significant shifts in spatial distribution, population dynamics and community composition due to climate change, overfishing and environmental changes. The warming Arctic Ocean is driving the poleward migration of sub-Arctic species such as Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), altering the composition of marine ecosystems Ref 39. Concurrently, the retreat of sea ice is enabling increased fishing pressure in previously inaccessible areas, raising concerns for vulnerable species such as polar cod (Boreogadus saida) Ref 9 Ref 98. Invasive species and the expansion of commercial fisheries are compounding the pressures on endemic Arctic fish populations Ref 71. The cumulative effects of these changes threaten the sustainability of key species and the broader Arctic marine food web, necessitating adaptive management strategies Ref 7 Ref 67. Recent studies emphasize the importance of implementing spatial fisheries management and establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) to mitigate these impacts Ref 79, including through meaningful partnerships and collaborations with local and Indigenous Arctic communities. These measures are crucial for preserving Arctic biodiversity and ensuring the long-term viability of commercial fish stocks in the region Ref 39.

North Atlantic Ocean, Baltic Sea and North Sea

Climate change is expected to increasingly affect fish populations in the northern oceanic waters. Atlantic water temperatures are projected to increase, reducing sea ice extent and boosting primary productivity, influencing distribution, growth rates, spawning locations and early-stage mortality of fish species Ref 39. There has been a shift in the ranges of North Atlantic species moving eastward and warmer-water species migrating north, leading to an enrichment of Arctic and sub-Arctic marine fauna Ref 38. These waters face decreasing biomass and biodiversity with respect to traditionally high-latitude sedentary species Ref 39. In more southern areas (such as the Canary Islands region), there is a tropicalization of fish populations, where many new species of tropical origin are increasingly being reported Ref 4 Ref 27, and northward expansion of common species off north-western Africa (such as Scomber colias and Sardinella aurita) have been reported (Amenzoui and Baali, 2018; Blanchet and others, 2019; International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), 2021). The patterns of change are highly variable from location to location depending on the rapidity of change; for example, rapidly warming locations develop more rapidly growing fish and slow-changing areas have more slow-growing species Ref 87.

Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea

The Mediterranean Sea is a hotspot of cumulative climate change impacts and is subject to increasing heat waves, extreme events, seasonal warming and changes in currents and degree of stratification Ref 44. These developments are causing changes to fish ranges, spawning seasons Ref 64, population structures, dispersal patterns, the structure of food webs and the composition of communities, as well as the increasing presence of non-endemic species Ref 115.

There is strong biogeographical structuring of populations, with many examples in northern areas showing northward displacements (e.g. Sbragaglia and others, 2020), but fish populations are also responding unexpectedly to change in more intermediate latitudes with southward distributional shifts of demersal species Ref 93 Ref 95. There is an east-west gradient in warming and increasing immigration of species from the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, making the eastern Mediterranean a hotspot of invasive species Ref 74.

Anthropogenic disasters, such as the explosion of the Kakhovka Dam in 2023, are expected to significantly worsen the ecological state of the Black Sea Ref 62 Ref 108, although some large pelagic species (bluefin tuna and swordfish) are slowly returning to the Black Sea for unclear reasons Ref 22 Ref 23.

South Atlantic Ocean and wider Caribbean

The South Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea have undergone significant changes since 2018, including warming trends and salinity alterations Ref 14 Ref 19 as well as increased extreme events Ref 40. These changes are having significant effects on marine ecosystems, including shifts in the distribution of species (e.g. tropical species, tuna) and impacts on biodiversity Ref 77 Ref 104 Ref 19. Coral reefs in some areas have been dying from disease and bleaching, resulting in the loss of reef fish habitat and changes in fish communities Ref 99 Ref 89.

Indian Ocean

The Indian Ocean region is known for its exceptional biodiversity, driven by a unique monsoon system that drives upwelling, nutrient-rich currents and high primary productivity Ref 55. Estimates of fish diversity report over 3,600 species of coastal fishes in the western Indian Ocean Ref 10. The region is also increasingly experiencing rapid sea surface warming, leading to deoxygenation in some coastal areas of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal Ref 21, contributing to biodiversity loss. Large fish biomass reductions (over 50%) have been projected, with tunas being particularly affected Ref 107, although bluefin tuna have expanded their distribution range Ref 24. Hotspots of threatened species have been identified in the southern Red Sea and the southern coast of India, with more than 90% of such species being affected by targeted fisheries, caught as by-catch, and affected by illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing activities, which is particularly the case for valuable species, including sharks and tunas Ref 10 Ref 113.

North Pacific Ocean

The North Pacific features the highest number of fish species and the most genetic diversity globally, owing to its large latitudinal scale and diversity in marine habitats and ocean currents. The area includes arctic to tropical waters and highly biodiverse areas such as the Coral Triangle and oceanic islands and archipelagos Ref 58 Ref 102. Mesophotic zones around tropical coral reefs harbour high fish diversity Ref 78.

Climate change is increasing poleward shifts in teleost and elasmobranch distributions and fish invasions and extinctions, particularly in oceanic islands (Cruz and others, 2024; Hastings and others, 2020; Tanaka and others, 2021). Increasingly frequent and intense marine heatwaves are likely to drive marine fish extinctions in Pacific islands, potentially affecting future food security Ref 3 Ref 50 Ref 97 Ref 70. The effects of climate change, El Niño and La Niña are expected to redistribute tuna species Ref 53.

South Pacific Ocean

The diversity of fish in the South Pacific, including tropical, subtropical and temperate regions, faces increasing threats from climate change, pollution and overexploitation Ref 15 Ref 26 Ref 72. Warming oceans are shifting distributions poleward and are predicted to alter patterns of migration and invasion and potentially cause extinctions Ref 91 Ref 15. The El Niño/Southern Oscillation affects fish diversity and distribution and is forecast to increase in frequency and intensity Ref 70. Marine heatwaves in 2023/24 triggered the fourth global coral bleaching event, spreading across the Australian Great Barrier Reef and South Pacific islands, but the impacts on fish biodiversity are still unclear Ref 89. Microplastic ingestion in marine fish, including commercial species in South Pacific coastal regions and oceanic islands, is rising, but population-level impacts have not been assessed Ref 65 Ref 94 Ref 112.

Southern Ocean

Antarctic fish populations are increasingly affected by climate change, marine heatwaves, fishing pressures and environmental shifts. Warming waters in regions such as the Antarctic Peninsula are disrupting reproductive cycles of species such as black rockcod, (Notothenia coriiceps) and causing habitat loss for ice-dependent species such as emerald rockcod (Trematomus bernacchii) and yellowfin icefish (Chaenocephalus aceratus) Ref 69. Reduced sea ice is severely affecting Antarctic silverfish (Pleuragramma antarcticum), a key prey species, especially along the western Antarctic Peninsula Ref 11. Fishing pressures in areas such as the Ross Sea exacerbates these challenges, particularly for top predators such as Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni), which play a critical role in the ecosystem Ref 11. Recent studies highlight the vulnerability of Antarctic lanternfish (Electrona antarctica), as changes in prey availability and oceanographic conditions alter their feeding strategies Ref 25. Adaptive management strategies, such as those implemented through the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, are crucial to mitigating these impacts and preserving Antarctic marine ecosystems Ref 18. Conservation efforts are critical as climate change effects intensify, which will in turn increase the need for continued research and monitoring Ref 41.

4. Key remaining knowledge and capacity gaps

Key gaps in the current understanding of marine fish and steps to reduce those gaps are listed in tables 3 and 4 below.

Table 3 Key gaps in the second World Ocean Assessment and recent efforts to reduce those gaps

Source: Prepared by the writing team.

Table 4 New gaps identified since the publication of the second World Ocean Assessment

Source: Prepared by the writing team.

Acknowledgements

Artificial intelligence was used through search engines to assist with finding reference material and through word processors to assist with some text and grammar correction. All text was written without the use of artificial intelligence.

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